not available
Description: Cycas micronesica (previously classified as Cycas circinalis) is a native cycad species occurring on some western Micronesian Islands; this indigenous cycad species is an ancient type of gymnosperm or “naked seed” plant. It has a long taproot and many branched tuberous side roots. The trunk is usually short, thick, unbranched and woody. It can grow to about 6 m (20 ft) in height and is crowned with large, long, “featherlike” compound leaves arranged in a rosette that tops a single trunk (see Cycas circinalis, an introduced ornamental plant in Micronesia today, which is described above, for more botanical details about cycad species).
Distribution: According to Fosberg et al. (1982:23), there is only one indigenous, widespread gymnosperm species in Micronesia: “Cycas circinalis (s.l.).” This single native gymnosperm species is now known taxonomically as Cycas micronesica K.D. Hill, and is presently considered to be native to the western Carolines and Mariana Islands; however, there is still some uncertainty about its precise indigenous range. Today, the plants are said to occur in the islands of Palau and Yap in the western Caroline Islands group, and on Guam and Rota Islands in the Marianas group. However, reportedly all of the native C. micronesica plants were removed from the islands of Saipan and Tinian by the Japanese during the Second World War, and habitat loss on both Guam and Rota has also occurred. Fosberg and Sachet (1975a), referring to C. micronesica as C. circinalis, indicated the native cycad was “Very common in forests on limestone in the Marianas and Palau, also on cliffs, but not confined to limestone, as it is found in ravine forest patches on volcanic soil in southern Guam and in valleys in Yap [and] tends to lose leaves in extreme dry periods.” According to Fosberg et al. (1982:80) Cycas circinalis (now correctly known as C. micronesica) had been reported from Saipan, Agigua, Rota and Guam Islands in the Marianas archipelago. Today on Guam, the native C. micronesica (known in the Chamarro language as Fadan or Fadang), can still be found growing in ravines, limestone forests, beach strand, and savannah land. However, because of feral animals and the recent introduction of two invasive insects, the population of C. micronesica on Guam has been decreasing rather quickly as reported by Marler et al. (2010):
“According to the available data, populations [of C. micronesica] on Yap and Palau are relatively stable. Populations on Rota are declining due to development and are highly vulnerable to scale [insect] invasion, and populations on Guam are declining rapidly. The subpopulations on Guam make up most of the known subpopulations and 50% of the plants. The measured decline of 3% in five years is expected to increase as heavily infested plants die. Seedlings and juveniles have also died back completely on Guam meaning there is no replacement of adults. It is therefore anticipated that the decline over the current and future generations (capped at 100 years from now) will exceed 50%.”
More recently, Marler and Lindström (2014), have made a strong case for the need to protect a deteriorating situation for Fadang (C. micronesica) on Guam, as well as cycad species worldwide which are among the most endangered groups of plant species on earth:
“The armored scale coccid Aulacaspis yasumatsui … (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and several other non-native specialist insects have invaded this endemic range in recent years, and the resulting plant mortality led to a change in status of C. micronesica from Near Threatened to Endangered in 2006 (IUCN Red List: Marler et al. 2010) [additional threats to the unique and endangered Micronesian Cycad that should be noted here are the stem damage to the cycads due to the epidemic longhorn beetle (Dihammus marianarum), and an alien invasive snail (Satsuma mercatorius) that has begun feeding on young leaflets and is now an additional threat]. The United States Fish & Wildlife Service recently proposed this species for federal listing (Ashe 2014). Based on recent occurrences, the justification for this listing may be met with apathy and misconceptions from some members of the general public. Moreover, the proposed listing may be met with outright opposition by the United States Department of Defense because of the prominence of C. micronesica on federal lands…. this cycad species was not just a common tree on Guam, it was the most abundant tree prior to the arrival of the invasive species that initiated the threats. They also illuminate an unprecedented case where the decline in a plant population progressed from most abundant to endangered status in only three years after the arrival of a biological threat to an insular habitat” (see Marler and Lindström 2014 for more detail on the worldwide decline in the ancient cycad plant group, italics added for emphasis).
Falanruw (2015:2) summed up the current situation for the rare and endangered Cycas micronesicaspecies in western Micronesia:
“This species is listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) endangered species list. In 2003, it was considered “near threatened” but has been reclassified as endangered because the Guam cycads are being wiped out by a scale insect that was introduced with ornamental cycads from Hawaii. This makes the cycads of Yap and Palau extremely valuable as the world’s main natural populations of this ancient species.”
Uses by Island Group: Cycads have a very wide distribution and have long been utilizided by people as a source of food and medicine. In some places the poisonous, nutlike seeds are carefully processed and eaten, especially in times of famine. Please note that eating these seeds can be very dangerous, and should not be consumed unless the special preparation necessary has been completed (see more under Cycas circinalis). “Words of Wisdom” from Rivadeneyra-Domínguez, E. and J.F. Rodríguez-Landa (2014:517) summarize the pros and cons of using Cycad seeds for food:
“Cycads contain neurotoxic compounds that may contribute to the development of neurological diseases when ingested improperly. We must be mindful of the fact that while some plants have a high nutritional value and may fill the food gap for vulnerable populations, they can also be toxic and have a negative impact on health.”
Uses in Palau: According to Tuyama (1942), the Palauan name for the endemic cycad species Cycas micronesica(which he listed as Cycas rumphii f. palauica Kaneh) was recorded by various Japanese botanists as Remiáng, Arinyáng, Rumiyan or Remiyán; Tuyama also indicated that “starches of the stems and fruits” of this Cycas specieswere “used for foods” in Palau.
Uses on Yap: Cycas micronesica is known in Yapese language as Faltir; however, Kanehira (1935:259) listed the native names for this cycad as Fratel or Frotel. As noted above, the large seeds of C. micronesica contain poisonous substances; however, people in parts of the Mariana Islands, Yap and Palau, as well as some other islands, learned how to remove the toxins in these cycad seeds through careful washing in order to use them as a source of food. Falanruw (2015:2) indicated that “Cycas micronesica can be propagated by planting the seeds, which take 3 to 6 months to germinate, or by cuttings of either the whole trunk or just the concave scars on the trunk that can be cut out and planted… [and although C. micronesia has been] used medicinally and for decoration…[it] is not common, thus is at risk of being overharvested.”
Uses on Guam: Moore and McMakin (1979:15) provide a concise description of this cycad (C. micronesica under the binomial of C. circinalis) and described its use on Guam:
“The hard-shelled, glossy, brown seeds of the female plant are extremely poisonous, containing hydrocyanic acid (cyanide), however, when they are split and repeatedly soaked in water, the poison is released. The pulp can then be dried and ground into a flour that probably was a staple food of the ancient Chamorros. It is still occasionally used for making (tatiyas) tortillas. The preparation of fadang in Guam [which Moore and McMakin referred to as the “indigenous” Cycas circinalis]should only be attempted under the supervision of a knowledgeable Guamanian.”
Sachet (Fosberg and Sachet 1975a) provided a translation of early 19th century ethnobotanical notes regarding the traditional use of Cycas fruits in Guam which was recorded in 1826 by Gaudichaud, a French botanist who accompanied sea captain, M. Louis de Freycinet into the Pacific region:
“The fruits of Cycas are prepared in the same way as the pith [the latter previously described for the Moluccas] but are much better. They are cut in pieces, macerated in water for 36, 48 or 72 hours; the length of time varies according to the temperature, the size of the pieces, the quantity involved, etc. Generally, it is best to continue maceration beyond the necessary time, rather than stop it too soon, as many examples show that very serious accidents, even death, may follow the use of poorly prepared meal” (see Fosberg and Sachet 1975b for more details in translation from Gaudichaud 1926).
Safford (1905:253) also provided some historical notes of interest about local use of this native cycad in the Mariana Islands over a hundred years ago:
“In Guam the seeds of Cycas circinalis [C. micronesica?], called ‘fadang’ or ‘fadan’ in the vernacular of the island, and ‘bigoto’ or ‘federico’ by Filipinos and Spaniards, were an important food staple of the aboriginal inhabitants, growing in the wooded northern plateau. As in other members of the [cycad] family the trunk contains sago, but in Guam this has never been utilized. Cycas circinalis [C. micronesica?] is abundant in the woods of Guam, especially in rocky places…. As prepared now by the natives, the endocarp [sic] of the seed is either grated or broken into small pieces and soaked for several days in water, which must be changed from time to time. When fresh the seeds are sopoisonous that the water in which they are steeped is fatal to chickens if drunk by them. The poisonous principle contained in the seeds has not yet been ascertained. After having been thoroughly soaked the fadang is dried in the sun and put aside for use. In preparing it for food the natives grind it on a stone slab (metate) with a cylindrical stone rolling-pin (mano), mix it with water, make it into a thin cake, and bake it on a slab or griddle, like a tortilla of maize. If eaten continuously for any length of time it is injurious. The natives now resort to it only when maize is scarce, or in times of famine following hurricanes, when almost all other fruits are destroyed. In the old letter books at Agana I find copies of reports of several Spanish governors to the captain-general of the Philippines, in which they complain of the unwholesomeness of this food and the injurious effects it has upon the natives. As far as my personal experience goes it is palatable and not injurious if eaten occasionally and in small quantities, although it is inferior to maize in every respect. Starch is sometimes made of the seed, but this is not very white and has a disagreeable odor. It is good for paste, however, and is avoided by insects.”
Whiting (1965 manuscript, see Fosberg and Sachet 1975a) provides further notes of interest about local use of this native cycad (not C. circinalis but rather C. micronesica) in the Mariana Islands during the 20th century:
“Green husks are chewed to relieve thirst in the jungle; when dried they are eaten as a sweet. The shells are beaten off the hard seeds with sticks or bottles. Persons participating in this work often become dizzy and are forced to go some distance to lie down and recover. Children are not allowed to assist with this part of the processing. Fifty-gallon drums are commonly used for soaking the cut embryos. Fermentation is accompanied by the formation of a thick white foam on top of the soaking mass. The recommended period for soaking varies with different families from a “few” days to a “few” weeks with several changes of water. Because the “soaking” water is reputed to cause death to dogs and chickens who drink it, the wise farmer protects his animals by digging a hole in the ground for wash water from the cycad seeds. Halves or slices of the soaked kernel are dried in the sun, often spread on corrugated tin roofing. When hard and brittle, the pieces are stored in a tin can until needed. They can be stored indefinitely. The kernel, after processing (soaking and sun drying), is ground on a stone “metate” to a fine white starch for use in cooked dishes as tortillas, soups, desserts, and doughnuts. The adhesive quality of the starch makes it especially desirable for tortillas. Many persons, particularly older Chamorro, prefer it to corn or wheat flour. Large quantities were consumed during World War IIbecause of shortage of imported foods. At the present time cycad starch is marketed in Guam at about 10 cents per pound. Individuals often report headache and nausea following consumption of foods prepared with cycad flour. However, in spite of occasional complaints, Guamanians continue to use the plant either for economic reasons or for preference for the flavor or texture. Juice from the fresh kernel is applied to open wounds, leg ulcers, abscesses, and boils. The exudate hardens and the wounds heal after a few applications. This remedy was in common use during World War II.”
Peter Lister & K.D. Hill in their article entitled “Cycads and Guam Disease” shed more light on the medical dangers of cycad seed consumption on Guam (see The Cycad Pages 1998-2002; http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/PlantNet/cycad/guam.html)
"Medical records for the island of Guam from 1936 demonstrate a high incidence of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Motor Neurone Disease. The three combined are known as 'Guam disease'. Research has centred upon the township of Umatac [Guam]. Around 1980, Prof. Leonard Kurland of the Mayo Clinic asked the anthropologist, Marjory Whiting (who was visiting Guam) to examine the diet of the locals for about a month. This research formed the foundation of further investigation. Whiting recorded the methods of preparation of seed of "Cycas circinalis" (correctly C. micronesica) as she suspected it was the cause of the problems. Seed was collected, the kernel removed and soaked for 7-9 days. It was then cut into smaller pieces and soaked for another week. Removed, cut again and soaked for another week, then sliced and rinsed with water until the water was no longer milky. The water was changed every day during this month-long procedure. They also gave residues of the rinsing to chickens. If they fell ill, then it needed more rinsing!!! When it was ready, the pieces were dried, ground to a flour and made into what the locals called "tortillas". London botanist Arthur Bell also analysed the seed of Cycas circinalis and determined it to contain the same toxin as in Lathyrus in India, which caused a degenerative crippling disease known as Lathyrism. The toxic compound was identified as BMAA (B-methylamino-L-alanine). Chemist Peter Nunn used BMAA in clinical trials on rats and found that there was no effect after 70 days. Meanwhile, similar disease symptoms had been found in patients in Kii Peninsula in Japan and on the River Ia in New Guinea. There were no records of Cycas having been eaten in either area, and patients were adamant that it formed no part of the diet. Researchers started looking for other causes and the search started to focus upon soils. In Japan, the soils were extremely high in Aluminium and low in Calcium, so it was suggested that this may be the cause of the symptoms. New York neurotoxicologist Peter Spencer visited India in 1980 to examine patients with lathyrism (mentioned earlier). Spencer and Nunn collaborated, and they returned to looking at BMAA. They found that it affected living rat nerve cells in culture - it acted as a cytotoxin and there was massive cell death within seconds of it being administered. They fed it to monkeys in their food and found symptoms appearing after one month - the same as those experienced by patients in Guam. In the Kii Peninsula, they found cycads to have been used in the past as a pharmaceutical, a herbal remedy for stomach ache and to "increase strength", although used rarely. There were also cycads growing in older gardens, and they found the mother of a patient whom had been prescribed cycad as a child. It had been administered by her grandmother at the age of about 5 and she died when 25, suffering motor neurone disease. In New Guinea, Valerie Palmer worked with Spencer in various villages and found cycad seed to be used in aiding the healing of wounds. Raw, unwashed seed was pounded to a pulp and applied directly as a poultice to cuts and ulcerous wounds, held in placed by a leaf and bound with plant fibre. Their continued work demonstrated there could be up to 35 year latency in the effects. They found patients in Guam whom had been violently ill as a child from the consumption of cycad on one ocassion, and never eaten it again, but died 36 years later suffering all the symptoms. In 1988, Peter Nunn again visited Guam. His observations of the preparation of cycad seed noted large amounts of gas given off in the first 3 days of soaking. Cyanide was suggested as being implicated in the poisoning. Symptoms of poisoning included vomiting, dizziness and weakness.”
A more recent assessment of health risks connected with exposure to naturally occurring toxicants in foodstuffs prepared from the fruits of Cycas species in Guam by the Nordic project group (2007); a summary of their study provides further insight into the dangers of consuming material produced in the fruits of these cycads:
“Since the 1940’s the cause of the highly raised incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinsons dementia complex (PDC) within the local Chamorro population of Guam and neighboring islands of the south-west Pacific Ocean has been searched for. Even though the incidence now has decreased from its peak in the 1950’s (179/100 000 for men and 61/100 000 for women) to numbers that compared to incidence in the Western world in the 1990s (1.9/100 000) are only a few times greater, the search for the main causative factor is still ongoing. Factors hypothesised and discarded after analysis with scientific scrutiny include hereditary causes, environmental causes, infectious agents, prions, and micronutrient deficiency. None of these have been thought to give the whole answer. The traditional diet was the only factor identified in epidemiological studies to be linked to the disease complex. In particular, the use of flour prepared form cycad seeds as a staple food by the Chamorro population became a topic of discussion in the 1960’s. Since then it has been clearly demonstrated that there is a connection between dietary exposure to cycad and high incidence of ALS-PDC on Guam” (Nordic Council of Ministers 2007; also see Cox et al. 2002, 2003).